Alexis Soyer's Part 4: Culinary Correspondence and Terms
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Culinary Correspondence and Terms.
LETTER No. VI.
I shall now, therefore, close the sick-room door, and open the one of the parlour, to witness the merry faces of the million who have abandoned their industrious occupations for the week, to partake, in the family circle, their simple but substantial Sunday meal. When parents of families are blessed by an increase of business according to that of their family, it is there that you will find genuine domestic happiness and natural love; and let me tell you, dearest, that the sight of a Sunday's dinner in a tradesman's house in England is worthy of being depicted by the pencil of the most meritorious artists of the age, and would not disgrace that of a Wilkie, Goodall, or Abslom. Behold, sitting round an inviting table four or five of those healthy and generally handsome faces of the young children of Albion, waiting, until after the usual blessing has been invoked by the eldest, with the greatest anxiety to know who is to be the first served, trying to open their eyes as large as their appetites, at the disappearance of a cover removed by a clean country servant, who exposes to their view the immortal piece of roast beef, from which a most excellent exhalation escapes as from a crater of happiness, and which seems to fill the room as well as the hearts of the whole party with joy; and the yet greater anxiety of the still younger branches of the family, who have cunningly reserved their infantine appetites for the appearance of the grand national dish, and more pleasing to their fancies,—the plum pudding, to which, for the occasion, a few spoonfuls of brandy have been poured on the dish, and set on fire the moment of placing it before the mother, who hurries to serve them, in the hope of putting a stop to the unmusical domestic harmony of the little ones, who do not fear to burn their mouths as long as they satisfy their appetites. Having now, my dear, given my full and due respect for the comfort of their Sunday's dinner, I have, in many instances, to complain of the way most of the industrious classes dine the remainder of the week. I always used to say, when in business, that he who works well deserves to live well,—I do not mean to say extravagantly, but that devoting one hour a day to their principal meal ought to be classified as a matter of business in regard to economy. We, therefore, must be very positive upon this important question, and make them perceive that dining well once or twice a week is really unworthy of such a civilized and wealthy country as ours, whose provisions cannot be excelled by any other, both in regard to quantity and quality. Yours, &c. Hortense.
LETTER No. VII.
Eloise
.LETTER No. VIII.
Many compliments to you, my dear Mrs. L.
At your request I here inclose the list you require, and which will show you how circumscribed the middle classes are in respect to the variation of their meals, in the way of meat and manner of cooking it. I do not disapprove of your idea in wishing me here to give a series or list of those provisions ; but, on the other hand, I must tell you frankly my opinion, it being a subject which for some years I have made a study, indeed quite a hobby. If I am wrong, let any one who knows better correct me; you will allow I am always open to conviction and improvement, no matter how trifling, as it often leads to an important one.
I shall therefore name all joints of meat which, though numerous, offer but little variation when continually dressed the same way, and observe that everybody has the bad habit of running only upon a few which are considered the best. They are as follow:
Those in Beef are the sirloin, ribs, round, silver-side, aitchbone.
In Mutton—leg, saddle, haunch, loin.
Lamb—fore-quarter and leg.
Veal—fillet, loin.
Pork—leg, sparerib, loin.
Every one of these joints are of the most expensive parts, because generally used, although many of the other parts are equally as good, as I shall prove to you, in the receipts which I shall write for the dinner, what can be done in the way of made dishes out of those parts which are rarely or never used in this country by the middle classes, which will more clearly develope to you my ideas on the subject. Besides, there is this advantage, that if a email tradesman were to follow these receipts, and buy every other time he goes to the butcher what he now considers a second-class joint, he would not only be conferring a public benefit, but also one on himself, and be the means of diminishing the price of those now considered the first class, which at the present moment bear too high a price in proportion, but which his pride causes him to purchase.
To prove to you that my argument is correct, look carefully over the inclosed list, which contains all the joints that are cut from beef, veal, mutton, lamb, pork, and you will find that ten of the prime are in daily use to one of the other, and principally for a want of the knowledge of cookery, leaving the science of cooking our food to a fierce or slow fire, or plunging our expensive provisions into an ocean of boiling water, which is thrown away, after having absorbed a great portion of the succulence of the meat. Try the receipt for the Pot-au-feu; taste the broth and eat the meat, and tell me which plan you consider the best. Do not think that I object to our plain joint, because, now and then, I am rather partial to them; but why not manage to make use of the broth, by diminishing the quantity of water, and simmering them, instead of galloping them at a special railway-train speed? Were the middle classes only but slightly acquainted with the domestic cookery of France, they would certainly live better and less expensively than at present; very often, four or five different little made dishes may be made from the remains of a large Sunday's joint, instead of its appearing on the table of a wealthy tradesman for several days cold, and often unsightly, and backed by a bottle of variegated-coloured pickles, made with pyroligneous acid, which sets one's teeth on edge merely to think of it, and balanced by a steaming dish of potatoes, which, seen through the parlour window by the customers in the shop, would make them think there was a grand gastronomic festivity taking place at Mr. A.'s or B.'s, the butterman or greengrocer; this may be excusable once or twice, on a hot summer's day, with an inviting salad, seasoned with merely salt, pepper, oil, and vinegar, but the continual repetition of that way of living in winter is, I consider, a domestic crime.
You will, perhaps, say that, in large firms, where forty or fifty, or more young men dine every day, or even in public establishments still more numerous, many professed cooks would be required to dress the dinner, if my plan were adopted; not at all, if the kitchen, is properly constructed : but in these establishments, joints, of necessity, must be the principal viand, and there is very little left; what there is, is consumed cold for supper; but even there an amelioration might take place, although only a plain joint, either boiled or roasted, roasted or boiled, which is generally the yearly bill of fare, and so simple, yet seldom well done, and often badly, which, in a large establishment, must create great waste, and make bad food out of good meat, and that for want of care or a little more knowledge, which may appear to you but a trifling matter, but not so to thousands of poor old people, with toothless gums and fatigued stomachs, made.comfortable within walls erected by the good feelings of government or by public charity. I have often thought, when visiting these establishments, that a professed cook ought to be appointed, as well as medical man, to visit all such in the metropolis, not only to inspect the quality of the provisions, but superintend the arrangements of the dietary table, and see that the viands are properly cooked, and thus correct the lamentable ignorance which exists at the present day; I am confident that tons of meat are daily wasted in such institutions throughout the country, which, if well employed, would feed a great part of the starving poor of the United Kingdom. The same system ought to be adopted in all the provincial towns; and, were it in existence, we should not have to deplore such lamentable scenes which we had latterly to witness at Tooting, where, no doubt, many were to blame; for by the calculation I have made, the allowance, though rather limited, was amply large enough to allow for good provisions, and leave sufficient remuneration for any reasonable and not covetous man. Why should not these poor children be watched over, and made as comfortable in every respect as the wish of those who pay to support them requires? Besides, it has an effect upon after generations; for upon the food at the period of growth depends the nature of the mind at a more advanced age, as well as the stature of the man. Do we not evince our care to objects of the brute creation, and feed, with the greatest attention, the racehorse? Compare him with others of his species not so humanely treated, and note the difference: so it is with the human race; and I might almost say the prosperity of a country depends upon the food of its youth. You will perhaps think that I am rather sharp in my remarks, and probably longer than is required, but still it will be gratifying to both of us, should we find that these remarks prove beneficial to such establishments as above mentioned; and it is only by giving notoriety to these important details, and being positive in exposing the truth, that we can be believed and followed, and you must not mind displeasing the few, if you are to be useful to the many. For ever, &C., Hortense.
LETTER No. IX.
My dear Hortense,—I received your last observations, which, on first seeing, I thought too long, but after having read them over again, I am convinced that I shall not be able to shorten them; at all events, there is a great deal of truth in them, and, as you justly say, they are the observations of a person who has constantly studied domestic comfort and economy; I shall therefore copy them in the journal just as you sent them to me. Truly yours, Eloise.
LETTER No. X.
My Dear Eloise,—I am glad to hear that you will not alter any of my last remarks sent, because I assure you I wrote with a full conviction that I was right, and from facts which experience alone can engrave on the memory; but, however, we will now proceed: but I think it will be necessary to alter our original intention, namely, in order to save any confusion, to class all the receipts for the dinner together, and thus form a large bill of fare, and follow, on a small plan, what M. Boyer, of the Reform Club, has done on a large scale, in his "Gastronomic Regenerator," by which the most inexperienced hands may easily provide a large or small dinner adapted for all classes, without committing a blunder, and thus make a selection from soups, different dishes of fish, and an innumerable number of removes; entrees, roasts, savoury dishes, vegetables, sweets, dessert, &c.; and, having chosen one or two of each series, by referring to the receipt, an idea of their cost, within a few pence of the market-price, may be gained.
Let me know, dear, by return of post, if you approve of my new idea, as it is rather deviating from our original plan; but observe, that having so very distinctly given the Breakfast Receipts, and those also for Invalids, it will be more clearly understood than by repeating the same over and over, which would be unavoidable, if we follow our first proposition.
Yours truly, in haste, Hortense.
LETTER No. XI.
My Dear Hortense,—Never were you inspired by a better idea respecting your new plan; it is so clearly explained, that I fancy our labour is over; but I must tell you that, on the receipt of your last, I wrote to M. Soyer, to inquire if he would object to our taking a few hints from his "Kitchen at Home," which forms the last part of his work. His answer was immediate, short, and as follows:
"Dear Madam,—It would be entirely deviating from the preface of my 'Gastronomic Regenerator' to refuse you anything in my power; and as your simple demand lies within that scope, you are quite welcome to take a few hints, if you require them for your little work, from the part entitled 'My Kitchen at Home.'
"Wishing your exertions may be well appreciated, I am, dear madam, most sincerely, your humble and devoted,
"Reform Club." "A. Soyer.
As you have his book, you, no doubt, know to which part he alludes. He says, in his preface, that he has made it a rule never to refuse ladies anything in his power; so far he has kept his word with us: so you may, dearest, if you require it, make use of his offer. I shall expect, by the next post, the commencement of the Dinner Receipts, which I am confident you will make as simple'and as short as possible. With kindest regard, yours,
Eloise.
P.S.—How is the young infant? Is he better?
LETTER No. XII.
Dearest Eloise,—I cannot but admire your anxiety to begin the Dinner receipts, which, I must agree with you, will certainly form the most important and principal part of our Domestic correspondence; but previously I wish to impress upon your mind the foundation and indispensable basis of cookery.
No palace has ever been erected without the proper material for the purpose, and the requisite knowledge of the capability and utility of that material. In the like way, every science has its foundation from whence it springs; but perhaps none so complicated as the science of cookery, in pursuit of which every nation and clime differ in their mode, in order to produce the same results with nearly the same materials, no matter how those results may differ; yet there is no other plan than the following for them to adopt—they are, Roasting, Baking, Boiling, Stewing, Braising, Frying, sautéing, Broiling, which I shall describe; and I am confident that, with your intelligence, you will not fail of appreciating them, as well as the minute description of the condiments—and especially that useful element, "Water, which assists so much in the proper organization of the materials for producing our food.
When you are acquainted with these rudiments, I shall then forward you the receipts adapted for Dinners.
P.S.—You kindly inquire after the baby. I am happy to inform you that he is better, and entirely free from pain; and that it was a false alarm about la petite rougeole.
Trusting that you will not be tired with my long correspondence,
Believe me, dear Eloise, yours,
Hortense.
ROASTING being the most general in use, we will first describe it, although it is not that which was first put in practice in cooking, it being evidently an improvement on broiling: we can easily understand how, in the primitive times, when man, finding that his food got covered with the ashes from the fire with which he cooked his meat, would invent a species of grate upon which he could raise the fire, and so cook his meat before it; this early mode of cooking has continued, in many countries, up to the present day, and even in London to within a few years; for I remember seeing, in the old Goldsmith's Hall, a fire-place, consisting of stages, on which was laid the wood, and when the meat, &c. was spitted and arranged before it, th wood was lighted, and a man turned the spits. (It was, no doubt, from arranging the wood thus in stages, that the name of range was derived.) In many noblemen's castles and ecclesiastical establishments, dogs were kept to turn the spit, from whence we have those of the name of turnspit; whilst in others, where there happened to be a person of a mechanical turn of mind, they applied a water-wheel to the purpose, and the water from it formed a stream in the kitchen, which served as a reservoir for live fish. Different opinions exist as to the mode and time required for roasting, but this must all depend upon the nature of the fire and the meat. In the Receipts will be found the time which each requires. My plan is to make up as large a fire as the nature of the grate will allow, because I can place my joint near or not, as may be required, and thus obtain every degree of heat.
A new plan of Roasting by Gas has latterly come into use, and from the cheapness and cleanliness of the process is likely to become a great favourite.
BAKING is a branch of the art of cooking which, although one of the oldest, is the least understood. (As I shall have to refer to this subject again, I will give the reason why in a future letter.) It is performed in various kinds of air-tight chambers, called ovens, the best of which have the same form as in the time of the Egyptians. Of late years an improvement has been effected in the construction of the oven, and to heat it by hot water. One of the first was erected by M. Soyer in Dublin. Previous to the art of baking being practised, boiled pulse and corn were the food of the people; even Rome contained no bakers until near six hundred years after it was founded. Great improvements were made, some fifty years since, by Count Romford in the construction of ovens for baking of meat, called roasting ovens, which caused great economy in the expenditure of fuel; and, in large public establishments, where a number of the same kind of joints are required, it is the best plan of cooking. In the • Receipts will be found the time required by each for baking, but, in the general way, for meat, hot ovens are the best; for poultry, not so hot as meat; and pastry, according to its kind. In using dishes or utensils for the oven, they ought, if of metal, to be of galvanized iron, and separate ones for meat and fish.
BOILING is the next branch of the art which is of the most importance and appears the most simple, yet, at the same time, it is the most difficult; this is a subject upon which, if I were to dilate, would occupy a good quarto volume; it is one of those easy things which it is supposed everybody can do, no attention is paid to it, and therefore generally done badly. According to the way in which it is done, meat may be rendered hard and tough, or tender, lose or retain its flavour or nourishment. Great difference of opinion exists amongst medical men which are the easiest of digestion— roasted or boiled meats. I say it is a subject quite impossible to decide^as it must depend upon the different constitutions and climate; for we might as well say that the food of the Esquimaux is adapted for the native of Italy.
STEWING ought to be the best understood, on account of its economy; pieces of coarse meat, subjected to stewing, if properly done, become tender, as the gelatinous parts become partly dissolved: it should be done slowly, the pan partly uncovered, and frequently skimmed. Great cleanliness should be observed in all the vessels used for stewing.
BRAISING is the next and most important part of the art of cooking, and, like the sauté, belongs entirely to the French school, from which it takes its name, praise being the remains of wood burnt in the oven, or live charcoal: this plan of cookery requires the action of the fire under and over the braising-pan, which is air-tight, in order that the aromatic flavour arising from its contents may be imbibed by the meat or poultry, and give it that succulence so much esteemed by epicures. The braise is put on the cover, which, in some cases, is made deep on purpose to hold it. Its origin is stated to be owing to a gastronomic society which was formerly in existence in Paris, whose object was to benefit and improve the art of cookery, and who offered a reward of a silver gridiron to any culinary artist who would discover a new mode of dressing a turkey. Although a gridiron was, no doubt, intended to be used, yet a young artist named La Gacque, warmed by the offer, directed his imagination to quite a different mode, and used the pan instead of the gridiron, and thus composed the braise, which was unanimously approved of by that scientific, gastronomic, and epicurean body, who awarded him the prize. The chief art in braising is to do it slowly, taking care that the ingredients are well-proportioned, receipts for which will be found in their proper place.
FRYING.—Of all the apparently simple modes of cookery there is none more so than that of frying, but yet how rare to meet with it done properly. I believe it is to be attributed, in a great measure, to the idea that to do it well is expensive. I have therefore made a series of experiments upon a plan such as may be followed in every private house, and I am convinced that to do it well is cheaper than doing it badly; but, in the first place, we ought to consider, What is frying? It is the insertion of any substance into boiling oil, or grease, by which the surface of that substance becomes carbonized, and the heat which effects this object is sufficient to solidify the albumen and gelatine, or, more commonly speaking, until cooked; to do this properly, the substance ought to be covered by the liquid, so that the heat acts all over it at the same time, or otherwise the osmazome, or gravy, will be dried out of that part which is not covered, and the succulence and flavour of the viand lost; or, should the liquid not be of that degree of heat which would carbonize the surface on the moment of its immersion, it would then enter into the substance, render it greasy, and destroy its flavour, which no degree of heat afterwards could remedy. The articles which are to be fried are generally those which have a coating of materials (such as bread-crumbs and batter) which are quickly carbonized, and thus forms a crust which prevents the grease penetrating, concentrates the liquids, and preserves the flavour of the article; the carbonization once effected, the fire should be immediately moderated, particularly if the article is large, in order that the interior may become properly solidified. All articles properly fried are generally much liked, as they are agreeable to the eye, and afford a pleasing variety.
The plan that I recommend you to adopt is, to obtain an iron or copper pan long enough for a good-sized sole, and 6 to 8 inches deep, and fill three to four inches of it with fat—the skimmings of the stock-pot, or, if that should not be sufficient, the kidney fat of beef, cut up, melted, and strained. In wealthy establishments, lard, and, in some, bacon-fat melted, is used, and, for some articles, olive oil, which can only be used once; but in our less luxurious homes I think the above is sufficient, besides, it has the advantage of not requiring that great attention which the other does. "When you have the fat on, before immersing the substance you intend to fry, see that it is sufficiently hot by dipping your finger (not in the fat), but in a little water, and then hold it over the fat, so that a few drops go into it; if it spits and throws back the water, it is sufficiently hot; or, throw in a small dice of bread and take it out immediately; if it is firm or coloured, it is hot enough: or, in frying fish, before putting it in, lay hold of the head and dip the end of the tail, and, if it crisps it, then let the remainder go in. I have found, if due attention is paid to the pan to prevent it from burning, forty articles may be fried in it before it wants renewing; and I am certain it will be found cheaper than the common way of putting a little fat into the frying-pan and turning the sole over and over, for you are then almost certain of sending the grease up to the table, where it is not wanted. When the fat is not used, it should be emptied, whilst hot, through a sieve, into an earthen pipkin, and covered with paper to prevent the dust going in it. For the purpose of frying, an iron wire-basket, with a handle, is used, in which the object to be cooked is placed, and thus inserted in the liquid. The cost of this instrument is trifling.
SAUTÉING. —You will perceive, dearest, by the following, that the word fried is often wrongly used in cookery instead of the word sauté, which process is totally different, and produces quite another effect on food. sauté means anything cooked in a very small quantity of butter, oil, lard, or fat, on one side of the article at a time, whilst the other requires about a hundred times more of the above-named materials to cook properly. You will see, in these remarks, that it is not frying a pancake, omelette, or still less a chop, steak, or outlet, but that they are sautéed; and how to explain that word, to use it instead of the misapplied word fry, puzzles me considerably, as I am quite ignorant of its origin as regards its application to cookery. All the researches I have made in English and French Dictionaries and Encyclopædias have not enlightened me in the least on the subject. In French, it means to jump, hop, skip, as understood by boys at school, or by the grasshopper tribe, called in French sauterelles, from the word sautér, to jump, I well remember at our school we had a French emigre for a dancing-master, who used to get into a passion when we did not dance to his professional taste; and used to say, shaking his powdered wig, holding his fiddle in one hand and his bow in the other, making all kinds of grimaces and contortions, which reminded me of the principal figure in the group of the Laocoon,—"Mon Dieu, mon Dieu, young miss, vous sautéz très bien, mais vous dansez fort mal;" which means, "You jump very well, but you dance very badly." It also reminds me of an expression made by a friend of ours from Havre, who was on a visit to us last November. Seeing some Guy Fawkes carried about the street, he asked me what it meant; when I told him, that in the year 1605 an attempt was made to destroy by gunpowder the king and parliament in the House of Lords, as well as ———. "Oui, oui, madam ; I know—I remember reading of it in English history! it was that little brute qui a voulut faire sauter le Parlement," replied he very quickly. "Sauter, sauter," I said; "no, sir, not sauté—blowup." "Oui, oui, madame, I know—it is the same thing." "Same thing!" replied I. This of course puzzled my culinary imagination still more ; and I perceived, that if the word was translated to his meaning, it would sound most absurd and ridiculous; as, for example, on being at a festive board, and a polite young gentleman, or even your own husband, might gallantly offer to give you a blow-up outlet, instead of a cotelette sauté, as they say in fashionable circles. I can easily conceive, that if the cotelette was blown up, it would stand a chance of coming down on the other side, thus saving the cook the trouble; but if Guy Fawkes had unfortunately succeeded, it would have produced quite another effect. Having failed in my literary researches, I tried to find it in practice. I therefore went to my kitchen, and put two spoonfuls of oil in a sauté pan; I took a nice spring chicken prepared for broiling, put it on the fire; and as the fire began to act upon it, the oil began to jump, and also slightly the chicken. I then perceived that the way my French friend used the word was right; and that, after all, there was not such a great difference in Guy Fawkes's plan of cooking the Parliament, and that of a cutlet or chicken; for both were doomed to destruction, the one by falling in awful ruins on the fire, and the other devoured by a ravenous stomach on the dinner-table. Now, dearest, having found no means of translating it to my satisfaction, I see no other plan but to adopt it amongst us, and give it letters of naturalization, not for the beauty of the word, but for its utility. The process of sautéing is at once quick, simple, and economical, and to be well done furnishes a pleasing article of food. The art of doing it well consists in doing it quickly, to keep the gravy and succulence in the meat, which a slow process would nullify; it is of course confined to small articles of every kind of food.
BROILING is, without doubt, the earliest and most primitive mode of cookery, it being that which would present itself to man in a state of nature. It is one of the easiest parts of cookery, and therefore should be done well; it entirely depends upon the fire, which must be exceedingly clear, and the best gridiron is that having round bars, which should be placed slanting over the fire, to prevent the fat going into it; the bars should be greased, and the gridiron should be placed on the fire to get hot before the object to be cooked is placed on it. I have heard that great difference of opinion exists in cookery books upon the proper broiling of a steak, whether it should be turned only once or often. My plan is to turn it often, and my reason is, that, if turned but once, the albumen and the fibrine of the meat get charred, and the heat throws out the osmazome or gravy on the upper side, which, when turned over, goes into the fire; by turning it often, so as at first only to set the outside, the gravy goes into the centre, and it becomes evenly done throughout. (See " Soyer's Mutton Chop.") As regards the thickness of the meat to be broiled, that depends in a great measure on the intensity of the fire, but the quicker the better, and also the sooner it is eaten after taken from the fire the better it will be. I have latterly, in broiling rump-steaks, added that which, by a great many, is considered an improvement; it is, on turning them the last time, to dredge them out of a dredger with fine holes, in which has been placed four table-spoonfuls of fine biscuit or rusk-powder, one tablespoonful of salt, one teaspoonful of pepper, a saltspoonful of either eschalot-powder or mushroom-powder, or finely-pulverized Bales of celery, well mixed together, and the steak to be placed in a very hot dish, with a little mushroom-catsup, and a small piece of butter, and served immediately.
ON CONDIMENTS.
There is one class of materials which are always in constant use in the kitchen—these are the condiments; without these, soups, sauces, and all made dishes, would be insipid; and the judicious application of them constitutes the good cook.
If all kinds of condiments were of the same quality—that is, if all salt, pepper and mustard, &c, were alike, receipts might be given as in a Pharmacopoeia, with distinct measures for each; but as nothing differs so much as these simple condiments, everything must be left to the palate of the cook, and on him or her alone depends the flavour of the alimentary substances partaken of.
Of all the condiments, that most general in use is SALT; in feet, nothing is perfect without it; the health of every individual depends upon it, being an ingredient in our blood ; it is as much required to be partaken of as food or drink; by many it is supposed to be only required to excite the organs of taste—if so, other condiments could be used, equally as exciting; but salt has a far higher destiny, and the great Author of all has bountifully provided the whole human race, in every clime and country, with it; even on those continents far away from the shores washed by the briny ocean, we find it in springs, and in crystal globules encrusting the earth. By all species of the human race with which we are acquainted upon the face of the globe, it is partaken of one way or the other; and although its use is beneficial, yet, if partaken of too largely, it causes disease and death.
Its composition consists of two elementary principles, earth and water, and is chemically known as muriate of soda, being a combination of soda and muriatic acid. Its use as an antiseptic, and as a condiment, are too well known to be repeated here. ,
Rock Salt is the unpurified salt, as dug from the mines. This is purified by boiling, &c., and is crystallized by heat.
Bay Salt is the coarse large crystal salt, taking its name from the salt that formerly used to be made in pits by the overflow or letting in of the sea at the head of Bays, and which was evaporated by the heat of the sun. Almost all the fish cured in France at the present day is by this kind of salt, the duty upon foreign salt being so high.
PEPPER, so extensively used at present in Europe, may be said to be but a modern custom. We find in ancient MS. receipts, still extant, that, previous to the introduction of pepper, many plants, natives of England, such as saffron, &C., were used, and which even continued down to modern times, until this West Indian fruit became more general and easy of attainment.* The plant itself is a climbing one (piper nigrum,) and exceedingly pretty when the fruit is upon it. The difference between the two peppers, black and white, is, that the berry is gathered with the skin or pulp around the stone, and that which is intended for black pepper is allowed to remain on, whilst that intended for white pepper is blanched and rubbed until the skin comes off. There is no doubt but that in the West, where hot dishes are so much in vogue, and where large quantities of this spice are employed, that there would be found some difference in the flavour—the black being more acrid than the white. In all dark sauces use the black pepper.
LONG PEPPER, the fruit of the piper longum, a plant very similar to the former, and, if possible, it has a more aromatic flavour than the black pepper.
I doubt if pepper was known to the Romans. If so, it would have been known in Egypt, where we find no trace of it, although some authors have considered it as the ammonium of the ancients.
ALLSPICE, or, as it was formerly called, Pimenta, is another of those productions of those climes near the Equator, which has come so much into use into the habits of Europeans. It is the fruit of the pimenta vulgaris. That which is the freshest is the best; as the aromatic oil which it contains is not dissipated by keeping. The essential oil which it contains can be used in very small quantities in cookery, but should not be subjected to long boiling, or it would lose its flavour.
GINGER is the root of a plant, a native of the East Indies and Brazils. It has also become naturalized in the West India Islands. The plant grows in moist places, and is of a reed-like form, bearing a yellow flower. The root, when fresh, should be of a light green, solid and heavy. A spongy or woolly root should be avoided. The virtues of ginger chiefly consist in a volatile oil which it possesses. This is best obtained by bruising the root, and making an infusion in spirits of wine or boiling water in a closed bottle; or, if thinly sliced and infused in vinegar, is pleasant in a salad. The way in which it is usually employed in cookery is by having the root desiccated by the heat of the sun until perfectly dry and hard, and then powdered till its aromatic oil is lost. It should be more often used in cookery than what it is. In 1845-6, those pioneers of colonial produce, Messrs. Keeling, had large importations of the fresh root, but not being appreciated, it has ceased. It should be used as a condiment as well as for dessert.
CLOVES are the buds of a flower, not arrived at maturity, of an East Indian tree, called caryophillus aromaticus. This, in common with many other buds of flowers of various kinds, contains a large quantity of essential oil. It has a very pungent, aromatic smell. Its nature is stimulating. It should not be boiled too long, or otherwise its flavour is lost in evaporation.
NUTMEG is the interior of a fruit belonging to a tree, a native of the Islands of the Eastern Archipelago, called Banda, and known in botany as the myristica moschata. It is strongly aromatic, and very volatile, and considered agreeable. It is used in powder, and not subjected to much heat, which would cause it to lose its qualities, which are heating and slightly irritating, and facilitate the digestion; but should be used moderately, particularly by those whose nerves are not over strong.
MACE.—This is the skin which covers the shell containing the nutmeg. It is cut into small pieces and dried. This is more often used in cookery than the nutmeg, as its essential oil and aromatic flavour is not so soon evaporated, but penetrate into the substances with which it may be employed. Its qualities are somewhat similar to the nutmeg. The essence may be employed to advantage in cookery.
CAYENNE is the dried pod of the well-known plant, the capsicum, now so often reared in hot-houses. It is, however, a native of the East and West Indies, and South America. It ought to be of a very pungent nature, and of a strongly acrid flavour. The best ought to be of an orange colour. There are several kinds of capsicums. Those known in this country are, the capsicum annum, or annual capsicum; the capsicum grossum, or hell pepper; and the capsicum cerasiforme, or cherry pepper. The pods of these are frequently pickled. The essence of cayenne, by infusing in spirit, is a very excellent plan of seasoning different kinds of dishes.
CINNAMON is the under-bark of a tree, the laurus cinnamomum, a species of bay, with leaves like laurel, found in many East India Islands, but chiefly in Ceylon. It possesses a very fine aromatic flavour and smell. When moderately used, is a very fine, elegant addition to our culinary art. The essential oil, when extracted, is better to use than the bark itself. This tree bears a fruit similar in shape to the acorn, but smaller. It neither smells nor tastes; but, upon boiling in water, yields an oil which, on becoming cold, is as hard as tallow: it is used as an ointment, and also to burn. The outside of the root of this tree yields camphire and oil of camphire.
CASSIA is also a bark of a similar kind of tree to the cinnamon, the laurus cassia. It does not contain so much flavour as cinnamon; but the aromatic qualities are very similar. Its oil is often sold for that of cinnamon.
CASSIA BUDS are the pods of the seed of the cinnamon tree. They contain an oil equal in flavour and pungency to the cinnamon. They are not often used in cookery, their value not being generally known.
MUSTARD is the powder of the seed of the plant, the sinapis nigra. It grows wild in many places, and can be cultivated in almost any soil. It is of a strong pungent nature, and is difficult to concentrate. It should be mixed with cold water and salt. It derives its name from the French moutarde, who derive it from the Latin of multum ardet, which became corrupted into moult arde. In France they prepare it in a variety of ways; but it is not our province here to speak about them. That which is called Durham is generally considered the best. Its name originated from the circumstance of that being the first place where mustard was ground like that in use at the present day. Mustard is a condiment easily adulterated; and particular care should be used in selecting of it. There is likewise the seed of a plant which we use greatly in salads, but which differs altogether from the above. The plant is known as the sinapis alba. The seed produces a white powder, and not so strong as the yellow. The moderate use of mustard is good, particularly to feeble stomachs; and, if more frequently used than it is, would obviate the necessity of using the chasse caffé to assist the feeble digestion.
ONIONS, a bulbous root, so much used in cookery, is a native of this country, but grows to a large size in warm and moist climates; but the pungent flavour and aroma is not then so great. By some it is eaten in a raw state; and if partaken of freely, its effects pervade the whole system, and the person who uses them may be known at some distance, from the peculiar odour which belongs to the root. Its moderate use is wholesome, being nourishing, and correcting the acidity of the bile. It is also good against many diseases of the skin; but should never be partaken of too freely by weak stomachs. There are several sorts. The common, called the allium cepa; the Garlic, allium stavium; the Shalot, allium ascalonicum; the Leek, the allium porrum; the Rocamrole, the allium scordoprasum; the Chive, the allium choenoprasum. The manner of using them, and the way in which they are employed, are given in the various receipts.
Onions have been used in cookery from a very early period; and in Spain and Portugal form the principal food of the lower classes—being, from the nature of the climate, much milder than in this country.
The next articles among the condiments are the herbs; amongst these,
MARJORAM is that most in use; it is a herb which contains a large quantity of what may be called essential oil, which is extracted in cooking, and imparts its flavour to the viands in which it may be used. There are several kinds of marjoram in use, but that known as the pot marjoram, origanum onites, when well cultivated, is the best for general use: there is the sweet marjoram, origanum marjorana; the winter sweet marjoram, origanum heracloticum; and the common marjoram, origanum vulgare, which grows wild in this country. The essence of this herb may be used in cookery; but the more common plan is to dry it for use, but should be used fresh when attainable.
SAVORY.—There are two kinds, the winter and summer; the latter contains the most flavour—it can be easily dried and bottled for keeping.
BASIL is also a herb in great use; it is not a native of this country, but yet grows to great perfection if well cultivated. The aromatic smell which it possesses is very similar to cloves: there are two kinds, the sweet basil, ocymum basilicum.; and the least basil, ocymum minimum. The first possesses the most flavour and smell.
THYME.—There are two, the lemon, thymus citriodorus, and the common thyme, thymus vulgaris; the first is the best to use in all dishes wherever this herb is required.
PENNYROYAL is not much in use in cookery, but can be used where mint cannot be had.
MINT.—Spearmint or common mint is that which is most in use; it should never be used in large quantities. Some of it infused in vinegar, and the vinegar afterwards used with a salad, gives a fine flavour and a novelty to that dish, and is used in vinegar with lamb.
SAGE is an important herb, and by many considered an agreeable condiment; there are several kinds; that whose leaves have a purple tinge are considered best for culinary use.
PARSLEY, although at present so prominent in use in our kitchens, was unknown to our forefathers; it is only within a century that it has become so general: it was introduced into this country from Italy. There are three varieties, the common or plain-leaved, the curled or double-leaved, and the broad-leaved; the curled is the best-looking, but has not so much flavour as the common; the broad-leaved is used for its root, which is excellent, cut up thinly in soup, &c. It may be obtained all the year. To keep it well, it should be dried and cut up, and placed in well-corked bottles, but should only be used when fresh cannot be procured.
TARRAGON is not so much used as it ought to be; if used more in soup, instead of the stronger herbs, it would be liked; but great care must be observed in using of it, as its aromatic qualities are quickly dissipated by heat. It is a native of the north of Europe, and known in botany as the artemisia dracunculus.
CLARY is a plant of the sage kind; its leaves are sometimes used to flavour soups, and is liked by a few.
FENNEL may be used very often with advantage; it is, however, rarely used but with fish.
CELERY, which is now grown to such perfection in England, is the cultivated wild plant known as smallage. Celery is a great deal used in cookery, but it should not be subjected to too long boiling; if its flavour is required, and no root to be obtained, the seed of the Smallage can be used instead. It is generally supposed that the roots and leaves of smallage are poisonous; we would not recommend them to be used, as the seed can always be obtained, and the flavour is finer. The salts of celery is a modern improvement, and a great addition to our culinary condiments.
BORAGE is not much used in cookery; its flavour is slightly bitter, and is sometimes used to flavour ale, cyder, &C., for a summer drink.
HORSE-RADISH is the root of a plant, a native of this country; the aroma which it contains is quickly dissipated by heat—it is therefore used in a raw state by being grated; an essence may be obtained by infusion with spirits of wine, and which, added to mustard after it is made, gives it an agreeable flavour.
CHERVIL is getting more into use every day; its flavour is exceedingly pleasant, and can be employed in soups and salads, especially in made dishes, with the greatest advantage.
CAPERS are the buds of a small trailing shrub, a native of the South of Europe; they are sent to this country in barrels, with salt or vinegar; those grown on the Rock of Gibraltar are considered the finest in the world. They are very excellent with almost all boiled meats, fish, and salads.
BROOM BUDS, when pickled, in some parts replace capers.
NASTURTIUMS are sometimes used in the place of capers, being pickled in the same way, but they have not the least resemblance; they may be used for salads. The flower of the nasturtium is a very pretty decoration for boiled fish and salads.
BARBERRIES is the fruit of a plant, a native of this country; some centuries since, they appear to have been often used in this country, but more modern importations have superseded them; they have a very acid flavour, and, if pickled, could enter into the composition of many dishes.and also make a good preserve.
GHERKINS are the young cucumber, or often the fruit of the uncultivated plant; they are almost always pickled, and are an elegant addition to all salads and many entrées. BEET-ROOT is a root of a plant which of late years has been extensively cultivated for the purpose of feeding cattle; the colour which it possesses is easily extracted, for the purpose of tinting various articles employed in cookery. When boiled, it is a beautiful addition to every salad.
MUSHROOMS are greatly used in domestic cookery, and are a general favourite, but I consider them unwholesome if partaken of too freely; their liquor, when decomposed with salt, is a condiment known under the name of Ketchup, is very extensively employed in cookery; this may be considered rather wholesome than otherwise, as it is known to facilitate the digestion. The largest are the best to produce the ketchup, and the small button-ones to use in dishes; they should be nicely trimmed, and put into a jar with lemon juice to blanch them ; should be submitted to very little heat, as their delicacy will be lost, and nothing but a tough substance left to eat.
MORELS are a species of mushroom, but which are now seldom used in cookery, but ought to be more used, as they are agreeable in many viands.
TRUFFLE is, without doubt, a modern introduction. So late as the year 1720, in the regency of Louis XV., we first hear of its being used, when Dubois, the minister, introduced it at his dinners, and the Duke of Orleans gave it to his mistresses, and the gallants of the day brought it into notice in their nocturnal repasts.
It was at this period that the science of cookery made such rapid improvement in France, and when extravagance in the preparation of the repasts was carried to the highest point; this was a period when "non ex pane solo vivit homo." Many of the sauces first discovered at that period have descended to the present day—such as Soubise and Bechamel, named after the noblemen who first partook of them. Then it was that the celebrated "Dinde aux Truffes" (turkey with truffles) first made its appearance. Since this period, the truffle has been considered the "to kalon" of condiments, and as the indispensable ornament of all banquets; or, as Brillat Savarin says, "La truffe est le diamant de la cuisine."
Within the last half century, the place (Perigord) which produces the finest of these roots, produced the first of diplomatists—namely, Talleyrand, who was at the same time a great gourmet. The locality may have had an influence in thus forming of him, but certain it is that he would never give a decision upon any momentous question until after dinner, and having partaken of his faovurite dish, Truffe aux Vin de Champagne. Those who are in the habit of partaking of them say that they enliven the mind, exhilarate the spirits, assist the digestion, and render the reasoning faculties more clear. How far this may be correct, I am not able to say; but I believe them to be irritable, and would not advise too great an indulgence in them.
When first known, there was a difference of opinion among the learned, if they were vegetable or mineral, as they appeared to have no origine; there is no doubt, however, but what they are a species of fungus, tube, or root. They are generally found within a few inches of the surface of the earth, and under oak trees; they are known also as the subterraneous "puffball," tuba cibarium. The best, as we said before, are supposed to come from "Perigord," the next from Angoulême—these are black; the white ones come from Piedmont, and Carolina in America; they are also very good, but ought to be partaken of fresh. We have black ones in this country, in the New Forest in Hampshire, and they also exist in the vicinity of the Lakes of Killarney, in Ireland; and if sought for, the woods of Mr. Herbert, M.P., would yield large quantities, besides giving employment to the poor. It is in such places where humidity and equality of climate exists that they are most numerous. On the Continent, they are found by means of dogs and pigs, trained on purpose.
They should not be subjected to too long ebullition, as the aroma is very volatile. Those found in England have not the same aromatic qualities as those of France, and therefore are sold much cheaper.
BAY is the leaf of a species of laurel, but in using of it, care must be taken that the leaf of the bay-laurel, or cherry-laurel, (prunus laurocerasus,) is not used for it, being a decided poison (prussic acid); but the bay, or sweet bay, (laura snobilis,) an evergreen of the South Europe, may be used to great advantage in cookery, as it imparts an agreeable and aromatic flavour, differing very widely from any spices that can be used for the same purposes. It is cultivated extensively in our gardens, and should be used according to the directions given in the receipts.
SAFFRON was formerly—that is, in the fourteenth century—much used in cookery in Europe. It has bulbous roots, like the onion and flowers; the fibres grow from the bottom of the bulb, having roots with coats or skin one over the other, and bears naked flowers without stem. At present it is only used in the kitchen for the purpose of colouring, of which kind it is one of the most wholesome. In Portugal, Spain, and Turkey, it is used at the present day to a great extent.
ANGELICA, a condiment much used in the confectionery department of the kitchen; it is the stalk of a plant like celery, which grows in our gardens, and is also found wild. When gathered, it is dried, preserved, and candied. Rouen, in France, is very celebrated for it.
VANNILLA is used chiefly to impart flavour to various articles in confectionery; it possesses also a very beautiful smell, which has caused it to be used in scenting different perfumes, and thus diminished its use in the kitchen. It is the produce of a climbing tree like ivy, having a large leaf and black flower, which leaves a pod containing black peas; the form of the pod is like a scimitar, from which it takes its name, being in Spanish vargarila.
When covered with tin-foil, and kept in a moist place, it will become covered with flakes of silver. It denotes the best quality, and is fit for use; it will do to be infused several times.
SUGAR is the concentrated juice of a plant which grows in hot climates, and is also to be obtained from other trees and vegetables, especially from beet-root. It is used very extensively in cookery, it imparting a mellow flavour to all dishes; it is of an antiseptic nature, and ought to be employed more abundantly in preserving of animal substances than what it is. This condiment was unknown to the ancients, who employed honey in place of it. The way it is used in the kitchen is explained in the receipts.
ORANGE is the fruit the produce of a tree originally a native of China, but now grown extensively in all warm climates. The juice of this fruit is a sweet acid, differing greatly in flavour to the lemon; its peel is of use in cookery, and the juice in many dishes of a sweet character for dessert. The Seville and Malta oranges are a variety of this fruit.
ORANGE-FLOWER, a distillation from the flower, is used a great deal in cookery.
VERJUICE is the juice of a grape of that name, and of other unripe ones, and on the continent was used to a great extent, until the introduction of the lemon. The grape is gathered unripe, and pressed, and allowed to ferment, and then put into large vats to mature; the older it is, the better the flavour. In England, it has been made from a species of crab-apple, and becomes that known in commerce as malic acid. It enters into the composition of several of the sauces in use at the present day; if pure, it may be preferable for several dishes to vinegar.
OLIVE is a fruit not much used in this country in cookery; it grows on a low tree with long narrow leaves, rough underneath; the fruit contains a long and small kernel; the flesh of the fruit, when pressed, yields the oil known as olive oil. This is a most valuable article in cookery; it ought to be tasteless and inodorous, but when long exposed to the air becomes rank and unfit for use.
ARROW-ROOT is the powder of the root of a tree growing in very warm and moist climates, of about two to three feet in height, known in botany as the maranta arubdinarea. In some countries, the flour of this root is mixed with that of Indian corn, and makes excellent bread. It is produced in the same way as the starch from potatoes.
TAPIOCA is also a starch, produced from the roots of a Brazilian plant called Cassava, a very elegant and handsome plant, with beautiful white and pink flowers. Though so handsome in its exterior, yet the plant in itself is one of the most poisonous in existence; it is now becoming general in use, as it is found, when mixed with a little wine or spirit, to be an excellent stimulant to an invalid, without possessing any heating qualities. It should always be well washed in water, and then boiled until it becomes transparent, when it should be well stirred, and whatever is required to be mixed with it should be added. It will, when mixed with other flour, make very good bread.
SALSOP is another root of a plant called orchis morio, a native of the East, where it is used as an article of food to a great extent; it is reduced to powder, and readily dissolves in boiling water. It is a light, pleasant drink, and, to persons of a feverish constitution, is exceedingly wholesome.
SAGO is another of these starches, similar to Tapioca, made from the pith of the palm-tree, a native of the Indies. It is prepared precisely in the same way as the Tapioca.
SOY is obtained from the seed or fruit of an Indian plant, called dolichos soja, or soya; it is produced in a very similar way to ketchup; it enters greatly into use in the variety of sauces that are made for the table, it being of a very strong, sweet-bitter taste; it should only be used in moderation in cookery.
CHETNEY is a production of the East Indies, which, of late years, has come considerably into use; it is the mixing together of a variety of fruits, and allowing them to ferment until they become acid : "Some spices are then mixed with them—they are then bottled for use ; the older it is, the better it becomes. That which is made in the Vale of Cashmere is considered the best; it is endeavoured to be imitated in this country, with little success.
CURRY-FOWDER is another of those Indian Condiments which have latterly come so much into use, and it is only to be regretted that it is not cheaper than it is, so as to allow it to be" more generally used, As it is one of those stimulating condiments which would be invaluable to the poor; its use would prevent the habit of taking other stimulants which produce intoxication.
LEMON is the fruit of a tree a native of the South of Europe and the Indies; it is a most valuable production, not only in the way it is used in cookery, but to the health of the human race. Its juice, when diluted with water, and sweetened, is one of the most refreshing and wholesome, that it is possible to take. The peel contains an essential oil, which imparts a strong pungent flavour to those dishes to which it is added. The true flavour of this fruit can only be had when fresh and ripe. At the time of Henry VIII., this fruit was a great rarity, and used to be partaken of at dessert with a quantity of sugar mixed with it.
The LIME is a species of lemon, the juice of which is more acid.
The CITRON is also another species; the juice is sweeter.
VINEGAR derives its name from the French vin aigre, or sour wine, and is known in chemistry as acetic acid. This antiseptic liquor can be produced from all herbs, plants, vegetables, and fruits, which produce sugar, and even that singular production of nature known as honey, and of which their juices will go into fermentation. Their juices, when first expressed, are called wine, or syrup; they undergo a fermentation known as the vinous, after which, when exposed to a certain degree of heat, enter into the acetous fermentation, and produce that acid pungent liquor known as vinegar. Of late years, it has also been produced by the distillation of wood, more particularly oak, and known as pyroligneous acid, which is intensely acid, and highly stimulating. When employed in cookery, it should be used very judiciously, and with great care. The best vinegar is that which contains the least vegetable matter, such as colouring, Ac, and which has the strongest acid taste, without being hot.
The different flavoured vinegars may be made by infusion, without the aid of heat, of the different substances from which the flavour is required.
BOUQUET is a term often used in this book: when expressed alone, without naming the herbs which compose it, means parsley, &c.
BOUQUET- GARNI means a variety of herbs, and, when mentioned, the herbs which are composed are also named.
BAIN MARIE, or, as it is called in the English kitchen, Beauméré Pan, is a pan which contains water kept at a boiling state, in which are placed the other saucepans, &c, so that the contents should not be acted upon too strongly by the fire. This term is old, having its origin with the alchymists, who, finding that sea-water boiled at a high temperature, and did not evaporate so quickly, used a pan containing sea-water (maris, in French, of the sea); hence the term Bain Marie, or Sea-Water Bath.
WATER.
Upwards of 730,000 diurnal revolutions has this earth made round that grand luminary the sun, since one of its chief elements, Water, attracted the attention of a celebrated philosopher, Hippocrates, who wrote upon the difference observable in that element. At a later period, Celsus gave directions for examining the specific gravity; and Pliny attempted to direct his readers how to distinguish the salubrious from that which is unwholesome. In the middle ages, when the monomania existed for finding the philosopher's stone and the elixir vitae, considerable progress was made in discovering its constituent parts. But till the time of Boyle, or towards the close of the seventeenth century, no means had been discovered of analyzing water, or of pronouncing with certainty on its nature and properties.
WATER, which in the general way is thought so lightly of, is one of those elements used in cookery which is of the most important character. The best receipts in cookery may often be spoilt in consequence of the water, as it is by it that the flavour of everything is extracted, and upon the quality of the water much depends the nature of that extract. It is only of late years that the economy of water has attracted the attention of the scientific; and I am fearful that the cook has not given it that attention which so important a subject deserves.
Good potable water ought to contain 1/24 to 1/26 part of its volume of atmospheric air; of this, one is atmospheric air, and the rest carbonic acid gas, and the specific gravity is from 1,00016 to 1,00030; when the solid contents exceed this, the water is what is termed hard, and is less fitted for cookery, and dissolving of soap or other domestic purposes. The solid contents in five quarts of water, or 10lbs., ought not to exceed 9-65 grs., and in the following proportions:—
| Carbonate of lime | 5.5 grains. |
| Muriate of soda | 2.25 " |
| Silica | 5 " |
| Muriate of Lime | 5 " |
| Sulphate of potassa | 25 " |
| Carbonate of soda | 2 " |
Many towns have their favourite teas—that is, what is admired in one is disapproved in another; this results solely from the water with which it is made.
Having latterly been employed upon several experiments with this useful element for the Sanitary Commission, and which experiments I am now carrying out with water from various parts of England, I have been exceedingly surprised at the results of these experiments, and upon the difference which exists in the waters of this metropolis, resulting from the nature of the soil through which the water percolates, or from the source whence supplied; but as this is not the place to give the particulars of those experiments, I shall merely state that the general result was, that I found there existed a difference between hard and soft water, to the extent of nearly one-third, in making of tea, or as 4lb. of tea is to 6lb.; and in vegetables of all kinds a difference perfectly astonishing, more particularly in roots, and none, perhaps, more than in the potato; the difference was even perceptible in the cutting of it, and the flavour of the water, as well as its hardness, was absorbed by that root. In herbs, the aroma and flavour cannot be extracted, even when adding soda to the water, which seems to make it only artificial; and green vegetables lose not only their colour, but their flavour, from being boiled in hard water, and soda, when added, destroys their colour. Upon meat it has a very singular effect, as hard water will not extract the juices or gravy, but causes it to enter and bind the gelatinous parts more closely together; it causes white meat, such as veal and chicken, to boil whiter.
In the prosecution of my experiments, I found that the softer the water, the quicker it boiled; and also that salt water would only boil at 213 2/10°, instead of at 212°; the contents of salt being, in 1000 parts, 26.6, chloriate of sodium; 4.66, sulphate of soda; 1 2/32, chloriate of calcium; and 5.154, chloriate of magnesia; and water containing 64 salt in 1000, boils at 214 1/4º Fah., 96 in 1000, 215 1/2°; 128 in 1000, 216T 7/10; 284 in 1000, at 226°Fahr.
MILK is almost equally as essential in cookery as water, and a great deal depends upon its quality; but as we have promised to write a small work on Domestic Economy for the Cottage, we shall leave until then those novel particulars concerning it which is the result of our experience. We will now state here, that it consists of three parts —the caseous, the butyrous, and the serous. The first comprehends the gross, earthy particles, being carbonate of lime, which serve to suspend the butyrous parts, and which, when coagulated by art, forms cheese. The second comprises the oily particles, or cream, which float on the surface of the milk, and can by agitation be converted into butter. The third is the watery part, which constitutes whey. The most palatable, wholesome milk is that which contains a due proportion of these three constituent parts. Milk, besides the uses we apply it to in the kitchen, is used for other purposes in branches of various manufactures, but more particularly for altering the colour of wines, as they change dark wines into perfect colourless.
Notes:
[*] It is a singular circumstance that this very small fruit should be the cause of England possessing one of the largest portions of her dominions. In the reign of Elizabeth, and during the war with Spain, pepper, which had then become an article of necessity, rose to an extravagant price, and to obtain it cheaper, the Queen granted Letters Patent to certain merchants to trade to the East Indies, which was the origin of the present East India Company.