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SECTION III.

WHOLESOME AND UNWHOLESOME BREAD.

Whether it be made with wheat-flour or meal only, or with a portion of sound floury potatoes, or of well cooked rice, bread will be perfectly wholesome, provided it be sweet, light, and thoroughly baked, though it will be more or less nutritious. This will be the case also if it be composed in part of rye*, or maize, or oat-flour, or even of barley-meal, unless it should be for very delicate eaters, to whom the maize and barley are not so entirely adapted as flour of wheat.
    Hot, or quite new bread†, is exceedingly unwholesome. Heavy bread is dangerously so. That which has become sour, either from having been over-fermented in the making, or from having been ill-managed afterwards, is very objectionable; and mouldy bread also is unfit for food.
    For constant eating, bread made with tartaric acid is not to be recommended, though its occasional use will do no harm. Invalids whose digestion is much impaired, should avoid bread enriched with butter, eggs, or cream; and when they suffer acutely, a small portion only of milk should be mixed with that on which they habitually subsist.
    It is scarcely needful to name the flour of highly damaged corn as furnishing unhealthy diet. Mention has recently been made in our leading journal of some which was absolutely putrid; and in its transit from the coast to London, was a cause of annoyance, from the dreadful smell which it emitted, to the passengers of the train by which it was conveyed. This was, perhaps, an extreme case, and it might not be destined to find its way to the bakers; but I cannot too often or too forcibly repeat, that to nourish the eaters as it ought, and to sustain "man's strength" as it was intended, bread must be made of sound and pure ingredients; and no economy can be more false or mistaken in its character than that which seeks to cheapen it by any admixture of materials which are not so.

PRODUCT IN BREAD OF A BUSHEL OF GOOD WHEAT FLOUR.
    The bushel of flour, as will already have appeared in other parts of the present volume, weighs fifty-six pounds; and this, if made and baked in a proper manner, will produce, at the least, seventy pounds of excellent genuine bread, such as cannot easily be purchased, and which will sustain strength and life better than most other kinds of food. Very good flour will often afford as much as eighty pounds of bread; and even this quantity is sometimes exceeded.
    Wheat meal yields a much larger weight than flour, and though sold at the same price as "good seconds," is in reality more economical in several respects. The London retail price of both these, per bushel, at the present moment*, is ten shillings, and the average cost of the four-pound loaf is from eightpence to ninepence. In the adjacent counties it is somewhat less; and it is considerably cheaper in those which are remote from town, as it is also when it is purchased in large quantities at a country mill. One of the disadvantages attendant often on a city residence to families of limited income, is the being compelled, for want of due accommodation in their dwellings for keeping household stores of any kind, to buy them for daily consumption at full retail prices;—many bakers, too, refuse to bake bread for persons who do not purchase the flour of which it is made of themselves, which is another drawback, as they cannot of course afford to sell it without deriving some profit from the sale.
    The bread associations, of which mention will be made hereafter, remove many difficulties in obtaining good bread at the least possible cost, and spare the housewife all the trouble and inconvenience which attend its preparation when insufficient means for it exist. In many localities these establishments would be of infinite benefit.

THE QUANTITY OF LIQUID REQUIRED TO MAKE A BUSHEL OF FLOUR INTO BREAD.
    This will vary, according to the quality of the flour, as the very best will absorb considerably more moisture than inferior kinds. It is said that the finest flour will take up half its weight of water; consequently, sixteen quarts, or four gallons, would be required for it if this calculation were correct; but it is seldom that more than three gallons will be needed, with the addition of half a pint of solid yeast. Rather less will usually be found sufficient when German yeast is used.

One bushel flour; twelve quarts (three gallons, exact measure) water; or, to each peck or stone of flour, three quarts of water, or other liquid.

    Observation.—There is constant failure in culinary operations in many houses for want of such simple "means and appliances" as a few pence would supply. Amongst these, exact liquid measures are very noticeable; the guessing at quantities, from not having them at hand, producing the worst effects in many processes. In every kitchen there should be proper facilities for the work which has to be done there, and for weighing and measuring ingredients in particular. Much loss, vexation, and trouble might often be avoided by having these provided; and the jugs lettered "Imperial," which are proper legal measures, are so cheap that they come within reach of the narrowest incomes.

PROPER FERMENTATION OF BREAD-DOUGH.
The "raising," or lightening of dough to the proper degree, by means of yeast or any other ferment, is a most important part of bread making, and demands the greatest attention. The yeast smoothly mixed with a certain quantity of liquid at a given temperature, should be diffused equally by thorough kneading throughout the mass of flour; for if they be carelessly mingled, the bread, after it is baked, will often display large cavities in parts, and be almost or quite heavy in others. This is frequently the case when the yeast has been left in lumps instead of having been gradually and well blended with the liquid used for moistening the paste; and when the kneading has been imperfect. Fermentation will be checked, and sometimes prevented entirely, by excessive cold; therefore, in seasons of severe frost, and in winter generally, dough should be guarded from exposure to it; though it must not be forgotten, that over-heating it, by placing it too near a large fire, or otherwise, will have an equally bad effect. It should be kept warm only, from the time of its being made until it is set into the oven. Very rapid fermentation, which is produced by using a large quantity of yeast, is by no means favourable either to the flavour, or to the general excellence of bread, which it causes to become speedily stale, and which it renders less agreeable and less nutritious than slower fermentation would do. If carried beyond a certain point, too, the dough will become sour from it. As home-made bread is usually prepared in sufficient quantities for some days' consumption, it is desirable to have it so managed that it shall remain fresh and eatable to the last; and this is best accomplished by fermenting it with so much yeast only as shall render it wholesomely light, and allowing such time for the process as will be specified in the receipts which follow. The various causes which destroy or check the fermenting principle in yeast will be further explained amongst those which occasion "Failure in making bread," and in the general rules and observations addressed to the quite inexperienced learner. It will be seen that fermentation is so much affected by temperature, that it must be differently conducted at different seasons, and that the judgment must be exercised in carrying it to the proper point, and in preventing that degree from being exceeded.
    It is very desirable that the principles of fermentation should be better understood in common domestic life than they now are. There would then—except from negligence—be no over-working of dough, of home-made wines, or of home-brewed beer, so often, from ignorance, permitted to reach the acetous state, which entirely destroys their value.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF MAKING BREAD-DOUGH.
There are several ways of preparing dough for bread, either of which, in experienced hands, will generally be attended with success. The most common mode of proceeding is, to mix the yeast carefully with part of the liquid required for the whole of the bread, and to stir it into the centre of the flour; then to add, by degrees, what more of liquid may be necessary, and to convert the whole, with thorough steady kneading, into a firm but flexible paste, which, after standing in a suitable place until it has swollen to nearly double its original size, is again thoroughly kneaded, and once more left to rise or become porous, before it is moulded into loaves, and despatched to the oven. The required proportion of the different ingredients, and the time for the proper fermentation of the dough, will be found given with exactness in the various receipts for bread contained in this book.
    To make dough by setting a sponge.—This method of making dough is usually followed when there is any doubt either of the goodness or of the sufficient quantity of the yeast which is used for it; because if it should not become light after standing a certain time, more yeast, mixed with a little warm liquid, can easily be added to it, and the chance of having heavy bread be thus avoided. After the salt has been well mixed with the flour, a hole is made in the centre, and the yeast, very smoothly diluted with a certain portion of warm water or milk-and-water, is gradually poured into it, the surrounding flour being stirred to it as this is done, so as to convert it into a rather thick batter, quite free from lumps. If the batter be thin, it will rise more quickly, but this is not desirable. Plenty of flour is then strewed on the surface, and it is left until the sponge has broken through it, and appears full of small bubbles. Sufficient warm liquid is then added and stirred in with a strong wooden spoon, and the kneading is then accomplished with the hands. The precise manner of effecting this, is so minutely described in the "Directions to the Learner," page 129., that it does not appear needful to enter further upon it here.
    Observation.—When coarse salt is used in making bread, it should be thoroughly dissolved and stirred to the liquid with which the dough is moistened. Fine salt may be well mingled in its dry state with the flour.
    Dough slowly fermented with a very small quantity of yeast.—The method which is pursued in France and other countries in preparing a rich light cake or bun, called brioche, may be followed quite successfully for bread, as regards the proportion of yeast employed and the time allowed for the fermentation of the dough, which should be made firm, and be thoroughly kneaded, then tightly rolled in a thick cloth, and left for a night before it is baked. The brioche, which is but an unwholesome compound, though very light, if properly made, is managed thus :—A fourth part of the flour destined for the paste, is made into a leaven, with a small portion of good yeast, and sufficient warm water to bring it to the consistence of rather spongy dough. This is placed near the fire until it has swollen considerably, and shows that it is at the proper point of fermentation. A large quantity of butter is crumbled into the remainder of the flour, which is then wetted up entirely with as many unbeaten eggs as can be worked into it.
    When the leaven is at its full height, this paste is rolled out, and the leaven is spread over and kneaded up with it; and, that they may be thoroughly amalgamated, they are cut up into several portions and changed about, and kneaded until the whole forms a pliable smooth mass, of which all the ingredients are perfectly incorporated. For two pounds of flour half an ounce, at the utmost, of beer-yeast is used; and this is very little when the difficulty is considered of rendering cakes extremely light with it, which contain a large proportion of butter.
    The same weight of flour may be at once converted into bread-dough by mixing with it a little salt and a single teaspoonful of fresh solid yeast, very carefully diluted with about three-quarters of a pint of luke-warm milk and water, or in sultry weather, with cold liquid instead. The manner in which this is to be further managed, is fully explained in the receipt for " Rolls cold-made."
    A batter-sponge for very light bread or cakes.—Directions for this will be found in the article "A Sally Lunn."
    To soften dough or paste when it is too stiff.—Although bread-dough, and that of household bread more particularly, should always be sufficiently firm not to spread about after it is made into loaves, if it be very stiff indeed, it will not, as I have said, rise easily, and in cold weather will sometimes not rise at all. In that case, dip the ends of the fingers into hot water, and press them quite wet into the dough; turn the dry part over that which is moistened and knead it well; and repeat this until it becomes flexible. Then set it where it will have a proper degree of warmth, without being heated; and it will probably prove light, but much more than the usual time of rising may be required to make it so.

CAUSES OF FAILURE IN MAKING BREAD.
    Yeast which is no longer sweet, or which has been frozen, or which has been scalded, by having over-hot liquid poured to it, will fail to produce light bread.
    Too small a proportion of yeast, or insufficient time allowed for the dough to rise, will have a similar effect.
    Heavy bread will also most likely be the result of making the dough very hard, and letting it become quite cold, particularly in winter.
    If either the sponge or the dough be permitted to overwork itself, that is to say, if the mixing and kneading be neglected when it has reached the proper point for either, sour bread will probably be the consequence in warm weather; and bad bread in any. Its goodness will also be endangered by placing it so near a fire as to make any part of it hot, instead of maintaining the gentle and equal degree of heat required for its due fermentation.
    Milk or butter-milk which is not perfectly sweet, will not only injure the flavour of the bread, but in sultry weather will often cause it to be quite uneatable; yet either of them, if fresh and good, will materially improve its quality.

THE TESTS OF WELL-MADE BREAD.
    Good bread will feel light in the hand when lifted in it, which will not be the case with that which has been imperfectly kneaded, as described under the head of "Proper fermentation of dough," and which, whatever its appearance may be, will generally prove half-heavy at least.
    Good bread when cut will resemble a fine sponge of uniform texture, and be equally free from the spaces caused by large air-bubbles; and from the dark streaks which show either that it has been made with adulterated flour, or that it it has been inattentively prepared, or too heavily kneaded when it was made up for the oven. The loaves also of well made and well baked bread will retain their shape, and not spread about into unsightly forms, as they will when the dough has been rendered too moist. They will also be equally browned, but not dark-coloured; and the crust will be firm and crisp, without being thick and hard. Leaves which have been carelessly baked, are sometimes burned in one part, while the dough is scarcely set in another.

TO KEEP BREAD.
    Bread requires almost as much care as milk to preserve it wholesome and fresh. It should be laid, as soon as it is perfectly cold, into a large earthen pan with a cover, which should be kept free from crumbs, and be frequently scalded, and then wiped very dry for use. Loaves which have been cut should have a smaller pan appropriated to them, and this also should have the loose crumbs wiped from it daily. It is a good plan to raise the bread-pans from the floor of the larder when there is no proper stand or frame for the purpose, by means of two flat wedges of wood, so as to allow a current of air to pass under them.
    Some persons prefer bread kept very dry in a safe appropriated to the purpose, that the crust may not soften.

TO FRESHEN STALE BREAD AND PASTRY, ETC., AND PRESERVE IT FROM MOULD.
If entire loaves be placed in a gentle oven and heated quite through, without being previously dipped into cold water, according to the old-fashioned plan, they will eat almost like bread newly baked; they should not remain in it long enough to become hard and dry, but they should be made hot throughout. In very damp localities, when large household bakings take place but once in eight or ten days, it is sometimes necessary to use precautions against the attack of mould, though the bread may have been exceedingly well made; and the method recommended above will be the best for warding it off, and for preserving the bread eatable for several days longer than it would otherwise be. If large loaves be just dipped into cold water and then placed in a quick oven until they are again thoroughly dried, they will resemble new bread altogether.
    Pastry, cakes, and biscuits, may all be greatly improved when stale by heating them in a gentle oven.

TO KNOW WHEN BREAD IS SUFFICIENTLY BAKED.
    When the surface is uniformly browned, and it is everywhere firm to the touch, and the bottom crust of a loaf is hard, it is generally certain that it is thoroughly baked. To test bread which has been cut (or yeast-cakes), press down the crumb lightly in the centre with the thumb; when it is elastic and rises again to its place, it is a proof that it is perfectly done; but if the indentation remains, the heat has not sufficiently penetrated the dough to convert it into wholesome eating.
    Many minute useful facts relative to bread have been repeated here,—some of them more than once,—because hurried or superficial readers are apt to overlook such small particulars; and some of them are really worthy of attention, and will be found practically very helpful to persons who are not much experienced in any branch of bread-making, or bread-management.