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PART II.

HOME-MADE BREAD.

The advantages to be derived from having bread for domestic consumption made in our own homes are great and manifold, provided it be well made, not else; and in every household, therefore, the true process of preparing it ought to be known, that it may be carried into practice when required.
    In the first place, it is, in the best sense of the word, the most profitable mode of being supplied with this very precious portion of our daily food, though the saving in actual pence may not appear considerable. The real economy consists in having it secured from every species of adulteration and abuse, which would diminish its wholesomeness or value; and in the positive amount of nourishment which it affords, in consequence, to the consumers. It is also in other respects, by far the most satisfactory; as it affords also the best means of regulating its cost with strict frugality when circumstances demand it, by the substitution of such a portion of cheaper materials for wheat-flour or meal, as will reduce its price without injury to its perfect wholesomeness. It must, however, always be remembered, that these benefits can be obtained only when the art of bread-making is really understood, and attentively followed out; for failure and loss will almost invariably result from carelessness or negligence in any of the details; and it is the want of success which so frequently attends the operation that deters many housekeepers from giving it a trial, and many more from persevering in it when they have once done so. As I have already stated in a previous work, "the heavy, or bitter, or ill-baked masses of dough, which appear at table under the name of household or home-made bread, are well calculated to create the distaste which they often excite for everything which bears its name*," and inspire a prejudice against it which, in some instances, can never be surmounted. The bread of the better order of bakers has, at least, the recommendation of being always light, and of soft and agreeable texture, while it is quite fresh; though it speedily becomes dry and uninviting; and seldom or ever possesses the sweet, nutty flavour of good home-made bread; nor is it sufficiently substantial to satisfy easily the appetites of such of the labouring classes as, for the sake of convenience or from necessity, subsist principally upon it.* Men who follow any occupation, as a trade and source of livelihood, will naturally be more perfectly skilled in all that relates to it than private individuals can hope to be; and neither clever housewives nor domestic servants can fairly be expected to rival experienced bakers in the general aspect or in the endless and attractive variety of forms which their bread displays, though they may effect what is infinitely more important, and satisfy at the same time all reasonable requirements as to the mere appearance of their preparations. A higher object than fashioning loaves into certain pleasing shapes may possibly be achieved by a little well-directed, sustained, and earnest effort. The common, but most precious food of the people may be rendered cheaper and more abundant, by being systematically guarded from waste* of every kind; and by replacing the ignorance from which much of it arises, and which is ever the worst enemy to the well-being of a population, with such plain practical knowledge as may enable those to help themselves who are now grievously helpless; and such of them to protect their own interests as are at present powerless to do so.
    If the instructions which I have attempted to convey here should assist in promoting this desirable object, I shall rejoice sincerely; for it appears to me worthy of the deepest attention, and of the best exertions, which can be bestowed upon it.
    At the commencement of this work both the extent and the effects of the "prevailing ignorance" of bread-making amongst us are dwelt upon at some length; and, to avoid the necessity of repeating here what has already been said about them, the reader is referred to the first ten or twelve pages of Part I. It must, however, be observed, that though far too general, particularly in our cities and large towns, this ignorance is not universal amongst us. Devonshire is celebrated for the excellence of its household bread (that of the bakers there also is said to be very good); in Suffolk almost every cottager's wife knows how to make it well. This is the case also in some of our northern counties, and in those where large dairy-farms are numerous; but in Kent, Sussex, Surrey, Middlesex, and many other parts of the kingdom, not one woman in twenty, on the average, is capable of making a loaf! When the educated mistresses of families shall be better able to direct them, the women-servants at least will cease to be as inefficient in this matter as they now are.

THE COMPARATIVE WEIGHT OF FLOUR AND BREAD.
    A pint of flour weighs fourteen ounces, or two ounces less than a pound.
    A quart (or half-quartern) weighs one pound and three-quarters, and will make a loaf of two pounds and three ounces.
    A quartern (or half-gallon) weighs three pounds and a half, and will make a loaf of four pounds and six ounces weight.
    A gallon (or half-stone) of flour contains seven pounds. This will produce eight pounds and three-quarters of bread.
    A stone (or peck) weighs fourteen pounds, and the product in bread will be seventeen pounds and a half.
    Two pecks (or half a bushel) will weigh twenty-eight pounds, and make thirty-five pounds of bread.
    A bushel (or four pecks) contains fifty-six pounds of flour, which ought to produce seventy pounds of bread.
    A sack (or five bushels) should weigh two hundred and eighty pounds, and the product in bread should be three hundred and fifty pounds.

DIFFERENT INGREDIENTS OF WHICH BREAD MAY BE MADE, EITHER ENTIRELY OR IN PART.

Wheat.	Parsnips (boiled).
Rye.	Beet-foot (boiled soft).
Barley.	Seed of French beans (boiled and skinned).
Maize.	Buckwheat.
Rice (boiled soft).	Millet.
Potatoes (boiled).	Sago (boiled).

VARIOUS KINDS OF FLOUR, AND OTHER PREPARATIONS OF WHEAT.
    Whites.—This is the name by which flour of the finest quality—made "from the very heart of the best wheat"—is known in the markets, and which is sold at the highest price.
    Best Households.—Used generally for bread-making. This is, or ought to be, excellent flour, and stands next in price to the "whites," of which the use is confined principally to pastry, cakes, delicate home-made breakfast rolls, and similar preparations.
    Seconds.—Perfectly good, but not very white bread is produced from this flour, which is that usually chosen by the economist.
    Wheat-meal.—Commonly, this is the entire grain of the wheat, rather coarsely ground, and freed from the bran. It is sold usually at the same price as the household flour, which appears altogether unreasonable, as it must cost the miller who prepares it much less. Yet even at this price it is economical to the consumer, as it contains, according to the statement of the best authorities, far more nourishment than wheat-flour only.
    Whole-meal.—Whole-meal is the wheat ground into a proper state for bread-making without any part of it being taken away. Neither the bran nor any other portion of it is withdrawn; and this is stated by Baron Liebig, and other extremely clever men who thoroughly understand the subject, to make the most wholesome and strengthening bread that can be compounded.
    Sharps, or Best Grip.—This comes next to that inner portion of the grain which contains the flour, and is good, cheap, nourishing, and excellently adapted to making bread, if mixed with flour for the purpose. It costs only from a shilling to eighteenpence the peck when flour is at its highest price.
    Pollard and Bran.—Until lately both of these, which are now known to contain a considerable amount of nutriment, were rejected in making bread, and given as food to the inferior animals. At present, as will be seen by the preparation called whole-meal, they are ground up with the finer parts of the corn. When separated from it they are sold extremely cheap; pollard at from twopence to threepence the gallon, and the bran at a much less cost.

FLOUR FOR BREAD-MAKING.
Flour should be ground two or even three months before it is used for bread-making, as, when quite new, it produces dough which, in some measure, resembles that prepared from the flour of slightly sprouted wheat. It gathers into lumps, and is not easily rendered uniformly light and porous; but, when very long kept, it becomes sometimes so hard that it has to be ground a second time and mixed with fresher flour before it can be used at all. The grain itself can be perfectly preserved much better; and, therefore, such a portion only should be ground at once 'for family use as may be required for a few months' consumption.
    Really good flour has no perceptible smell, or only a very slight and agreeable one; and when grasped tightly in the hand will retain the marks of the fingers, and remain in a lump when they are loosened from it; and it mixes quite easily into a smooth batter or dough when used. Flour which will not do this is either too new or adulterated, or made from bad wheat.
    To keep flour.—Flour should always be kept free from damp, or it will become musty, and no process can then render it fit for bread; for even a small portion of it, when so tainted, will always impart a most unpleasant flavour to everything with which it is mixed. To secure it from this injury, flour should be stored in a large chest or bin, as it is sometimes termed, and stand on a dry floor. Of late, flour-chests have been made lined throughout with tin, an admirable improvement, because they protect it well from the air, and can be kept perfectly clean without the application of water, which the wood could not. They require simply to be entirely emptied from time to time, and wiped out thoroughly with dry cloths. Few household stores can be preserved in good condition without care and nicety; and none are more easily injured by neglect than those which are used for bread. Small quantities of flour are sometimes merely put into stout linen bags tied at the neck, and set on a dry pantry or larder shelf or dresser. These should be often washed, well rinsed in plenty of fresh water, that they may retain no smell of soap or soda, and be dried quickly in the open air. When common wooden flour-chests of any size are used they should be occasionally emptied, scoured extremely clean with hot water, and be perfectly free from the slightest degree of moisture before they are again filled with flour. Meal requires the same precautions to preserve it sweet. If flour or bread be left exposed, it will attract not only mice, but kitchen-beetles and other insects which abound in the underground floors of many houses: it should always therefore be well protected in some way from their attacks.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF YEAST, AND OTHER FERMENTED, AND THE MODES OF USING THEM.
Yeast is so important an auxiliary in making bread that its nature and quality demand especial attention; for unless it be good of its kind, and in a fitting state to produce ready and proper fermentation, the best four of which dough can be fabricated will fail to produce wholesome or even eatable bread. A knowledge of the proportion of it required is also indispensable. Too much is commonly used by unskilful bread-makers, and this both impairs its flavour and diminishes its nutritious properties, while an insufficient quantity will fail to render it light. By attention to the receipts which follow, the learner will be enabled to avoid both these extremes. The yeast of strong beer or ale will produce much more effect than that of milder kinds; and the fresher yeast is, the smaller will be the quantity of it needed to raise the dough.
    To purify yeast.—When yeast is either bitter or dark-coloured, it can only be improved by copious and repeated washings. It should be well stirred into plenty of cold water and left for at least twelve hours undisturbed, when it will have subsided into a comparatively solid state, and the water may be gently poured away without disturbing it, and more be poured to it when time will permit, or when it is found to be necessary. Should any hops or impurities of any kind appear in it, it should be strained through a hair-sieve kept for the purpose after it is mixed with the water and before it is put aside to settle.
    It may be preserved many days by changing the water every twenty-four hours, but must never be left for any length of time exposed to the air without it after it has once been mingled with it. The white of an egg beaten up with the first water poured on will assist to remove the bitter flavour of yeast.
    To keep brewers' or home-made yeast.—If taken very new, and poured immediately into clean dry stone or glass bottles, and corked, but not very tightly, without delay, common yeast will remain perfectly good often for a fortnight at least. Should a little of the beer be mixed up with it, it will not matter: the bottles should be well shaken when the yeast is wanted for use, and it can still be watered for some hours to render it solid. With water only, if it be changed regularly, it may be kept for many days, but it is always best in its effects when new.
    To freshen or aid the fermentation of stale yeast.—Yeast may be made to ferment much more easily and quickly after it has become stale by mixing with it first a small quantity of sugar in powder, and then a few spoonfuls of warm water, and setting it in a warm place to rise. A teaspoonful of sugar will be sufficient for two tablespoonfuls of solid yeast: a little warm flour will further help the fermentation. The whole may be mixed into a thin batter.
    German yeast.—This preparation, of which the true nature will presently be explained, has now very much superseded the use of brewers' yeast in such parts of this country as are conveniently situated for receiving quickly the supplies of it sent to us regularly from abroad; and it answers exceedingly well when it can be obtained fresh and is properly managed, as it is never bitter, and ferments very easily. Some prejudice—which appears to have been quite without any reasonable foundation—existed against it for a time; but it has given way in a great measure to the results of experience, and to the clear explanations which have lately been made to the public of its real character, which show that there can be nothing injurious in it. In exceedingly sultry weather it becomes putrid almost before it can be conveyed from the places where it is manufactured here; and it is then better avoided; but in all other seasons it will be found well adapted for making very light bread and cakes. It has been sometimes objected to, from its rendering bread too spongy and unsubstantial; but this has arisen, I am inclined to believe, from double the quantity of it having been used which was really required. One ounce is quite sufficient to make a gallon of flour into bread. For many months this is the full proportion which I have habitually had employed, with entire success. In London, where I first had it tested, nearly twice as much produced no better effect; but the yeast, after having been kept a day or two in the heavy atmosphere of that city, may perhaps ferment less freely.* Great care should be taken to dilute it very gradually before it is mixed with the flour in making dough; for, unless this be done, the bread will be full of large hollow spaces after it is baked, which will never be seen in that which is properly made. When used in its dry state it should first be broken down in a large basin with the back of a strong spoon, and moistened with a few drops of liquid at a time, until not a single lump is to be seen in it. When it has been dropped into water and stirred up with it, it will have become smooth at once. The usual price at which it is retailed is one penny the ounce. For the same cost sufficient brewers' yeast may be obtained to make a bushel of bread: the German yeast, therefore, is considerably the dearest, but it is more uniform and certain in its effects. It is sold at the bakers' and cornchandlers', and sometimes by the general shopkeepers.
    To keep German yeast.—In the state in which it arrives here, it is very difficult to preserve this yeast fit for use for more than a day or two, unless the weather should be very cold. It keeps best in an uncovered jar or cup; and should always be set into a cool and dry place. When procured quite fresh and sweet, if dropped into a jug of water* directly it is brought into the house, and well stirred up with it, it will remain good much longer and ferment very readily afterwards. The water may be changed, once in twenty-four hours, and, if poured off carefully, will carry no portion of the yeast with it. A pint of water will be sufficient for an ounce of yeast.
    Method of making German yeast.—"This yeast in many distilleries forms an important by-product of the manufactory, and is collected and sold under the name of dry yeast, for the use of the private brewer and baker. When this is done, the process adopted is nearly as follows:—Crushed rye is mashed with the proper quantity of barley-malt, and the wort, when made, cooled to the proper temperature. For every hundred pounds of the crushed grain there are now added half a pound of carbonate of soda, and six ounces of oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) diluted with much water, and the wort is then brought into fermentation by the addition of yeast. From the strongly-fermenting liquid the yeast is skimmed off, and strained through a hair-sieve into cold water, through which it is allowed to settle. It is afterwards washed with one or two waters, and finally pressed in cloth bags till it has the consistency of dough. It has a pleasant fruity smell, and in a cool place may be kept for two or three weeks. It then passes into a putrefying decomposition, acquires the odour of decaying cheese, and, like decaying cheese, has now the property of changing sugar into lactic acid, instead of into alcohol, as before. A hundred pounds of crushed grain will yield six to eight pounds of the pressed yeast. It is made largely at Rotterdam, and is imported thence to this country through Hull."*
    This is nearly the same process as the one pursued in Austria, and communicated recently by a correspondent of the Times. "Take brewery, or, by preference, distillery yeast, and filter it through muslin or a silk sieve into four or five times the quantity of water, which must be as cold as possible and in which, in summer, ice should be dissolved. Let the yeast and water be well stirred up together (in preference with a broom) until there is a good head of foam; then leave them until the yeast has settled and the water has become clear. Draw off the water gently without disturbing the yeast. (This is best effected by having a tub with taps in it placed at different heights, and by opening the highest first.) This done, again pump the tub full of fresh water, and stir the yeast up with it again. Repeat this until the water becomes tasteless and clear; then add to the settled substance, for every twelve gallons of yeast used at the commencement, half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia and one ounce of bi-carbonate of soda, previously dissolved in a pint of water. Mix this well with the purified yeast, and leave it for twelve or fourteen hours. Then again pump water to it, stir it up well, and, when once more settled, draw it off, which concludes the process. The yeast must next be turned into a linen bag, tied up, and placed between two boards large enough to cover it well, and very gently pressed to free it gradually from moisture, and convert it into a substance similar to bread-paste or dough, which can be formed to size and weight as needed.
    "In Austria the weight is something near one pound when dry, in square forms an inch thick.
    "The whole process should be conducted in a very cool place, and the yeast should be kept in a cold place, when it will remain good from eight to ten days in summer, and from ten to fifteen in winter."
    From this excellent receipt, which I have been obliged to curtail a little, it will be seen that German yeast is only common yeast thoroughly purified and rendered half-solid by pressure. It might easily be prepared in this country, either for sale or for domestic use, by the directions given above, which are very clear and ample.
    Home-brewed yeast.—The yeast of mild* home-brewed ale is always much in request for bread-making, and is even bought up by some first-class London bakers from small farms and other places for the purpose. It does not require watering to purify it, but merely to render it solid, that a learner may know exactly the proportion to take; which cannot so well be ascertained in its frothy and liquid state. Experienced bread-makers do not need such a precaution, as they are enabled, by long practice, to judge of the effect which it will produce in any form. A large tablespoonful of it when solid will be quite sufficient for a four-pound loaf.
    Brewers' yeast.—Though often otherwise perfectly good, brewers' yeast is sometimes in these days so extremely bitter, that it can with difficulty be rendered fit for making bread, even by the washing and frequent change of water recommended at page 92. Neither passing it through bran, nor dropping kindled charcoal or live cinders into it, nor any of the expedients recommended commonly for the purpose, will produce the desired effect. The white of an egg mingled with the water which is first stirred to it may, in a measure, improve it; but as gentian and various other powerfully-flavoured ingredients are partly substituted for hops in brewing the bitter beer which at present finds so much favour with the English public, and which is so largely brewed for exportation as well, it is extremely difficult to make bread with it that is free from bitterness. The only plan to be pursued when no other can be procured, is to use it very sparingly, and to leave the dough much longer to rise. The yeast of porter, from its dark colour, and its flavour also, is objectionable for bread.

INGREDIENTS FOR MAKING UNFERMENTED BREAD.
    Good and wholesome bread can be made in several ways without yeast, or what is commonly called leaven or "raising." When a loaf is merely wanted quickly on occasion, soda and tartaric acid or sour butter-milk may be used for it; but for constant eating the tartaric acid would be objectionable, and muriatic acid should supply its place; but this must be kept and used with care and caution, as it burns severely before it is mixed with the soda, but is perfectly harmless afterwards, as it is then converted into common salt, and the hands may be used fearlessly to knead the bread which is made with it after the ingredients have been stirred together for an instant with a wooden spoon.
    All unfermented bread must be despatched to the oven the instant it is made, or it will be heavy; it can therefore only be baked where there is an oven close at hand. If sent to a bake-office, it must be made there, and set into the oven immediately.
    For the best kind of unfermented bread.—When this is required in large quantities, or is habitually eaten by a family, the ingredients should be kept in readiness for immediate use when needed. Eight ounces of strong muriatic acid should be mixed with twenty-one ounces of cold water, and kept in a stopper-bottle. For each pound of flour half an ounce of this should be measured with a graduated glass kept for the purpose, and added to half a pint of cold water. One drachm (apothecaries' weight) of carbonate of soda must be rubbed through a fine sieve, and thoroughly mingled with the flour, before the acid is stirred to it.
    Strong muriatic acid 8 ozs., cold water 21 ozs. Of this mixture, 1/2, an oz. in 1/2 pint cold water for each lb. of flour, and carbonate of soda (apothecaries' weight) 1 drachm.
    For Dr. Pereira's unfermented bread.—For each pound of flour one drachm of carbonate of soda, and half a teaspoonful of pounded sugar rubbed through a sieve. Fifty drops of the muriatic acid of the shops and half a pint of water.